Territory of Chandelas: Jaijakbhukti

JaijakBhukti

Post Harsha period was a period, when all Rajput kings were fighting for supremacy in central India. In that period, a new dynastical name introduced in the Indian history and wrote the name of their supremacy is known as Chandelas.

There may be confusion about origin of Chandela dynasty, but there are many inscriptions and copper plates to prove their territory and control in central India.

The available epigraphic evidence shows that they had strong hold in Vindhyan ranges. Stone Epigraph V. S. 954 AD ‘Pleasure-mound was that Vindhya, the peaks of which are charming with the sweet notes of his Excellencies sung by Kirata women…..’ This reference connects him with the Vindhyan region.

But seventh king of this dynasty king Yashovarman pushed up his northern frontier upto the river Yamuna and Ganga. ‘ The illustrious Lakshavarman in his conquests of the regions made, equal to Indra, the daughter of Kalinda (Yamuna), and the offspring of Jahnu (Ganga), one after another, his pleasure-lakes, encamping the forces of his army on either bank unmolested by any adversaries, (and rendering) their waters muddy by the bathing of his furious mighty elephants’ (v. 39).

 The Yamuna formed the northern limit of the empire of his son Dhanga too, who also controlled the Ganga, at least between Prayag and Kashi.  He captured the fort of Gwalior. He entitled as Kalanjaraadhipati or master of Kalanjar fort. The 13^th king Kirtivarman is associated with Deogarh region on the Betwa, while during the region of his grandson Madanvarman, a Chandela governor was stationed at Bilahari (Jabalpur Dist.) is believed to have administered the surrounding territory, including the Sagar and Damoh district. His successor Paramardideva lost the western part of his kingdom including Mahoba to the Sultan of Delhi, but his son Trailokyavarman, partially made up his loss by gaining fresh territory in what is now known as Baghelkhand.

The territory of Chandelas bounded on the north by the Yamuna, on the south by Narmada, on the east by Tons (Tamasa) and on the west by Chambal, lies almost in the centre of India. It comprises such parts of Uttar Pradesh as lie to the south of the Ganga and Yamuna, including portions of the districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur, besides those of Jhansi, Banda, Jalaun and Hamirpur; Sagar and Damoh districts of Madhya Pradesh; a large number of erstwhile princely states including Chhatarpur, Ajaygarh, Orchha, Panna, Charkhari and Bijawar, formerly included in the Central India States Agency.

The important towns under the Chandela rulers were Mahoba (Mahotsava-nagara), Kalinjar (Kalanjara), Ajaygarh (Jayadurga), Dudahi, Chandpur and Madanpur.

There is sufficient evidence to prove the beauty of Chandela towns, every town and forts of Chandelas was decorated with, temples, gardens, ponds and tanks. The most beautiful town was Khajuraho (Kharjurvahaka), it was a well-planned and develop town of Chandelas, where they decorated most beautiful monuments. Still there are many ponds and tanks with temples. The most develop fort was Kalinjar and Ajaygarh, those are still decorated with many tanks and ponds, and many temple ruins are there.

Fall of Great Rulers

Trailokyavarman (c. 1203-1245 AD)

The Ajaygarh rock inscription of Kalayandevi states that ‘Trailokyavarman ruled the kingdom’ after Parmardideva. He ruled over an extensive area including the former states of Chhatarpur, Panna, Ajaygarh and Bijawar. The most important achievement of Trailokyavarman was the request of Kalanjir, which had been captured by Kutub-ud-din Aibak in Ad 1203, and placed in charge of a Muslim governor. There are ample epigraphic evidence which throws light on the struggle between the Chandelas and Kalchuris. Besides the Kalchuri and Muslim rulers, he had another enemy. An Ajaygarh inscription gave some details that Ananda the governor of that fort ‘reduced to submission the wild tribes of Bhilas, Sabaras and Pulindas’. The same inscription also refers another enemy of his, who given unusual name of Bhojuka’.

Trailokyavarman had a long reign of at least 37 years. The available records show that he was far from being a local chieftain.

Viravarman (c. 1245-1285 AD)

Viravarman, the son and successor of Trailokyavarman continued to follow the aggressive policies of his father. While Trailokyavarman had extended his dominions towards the east, Viravarman sought expansion towards the west, at the expense of petty Hindu rulers.  The Dahi copper- plate suggests that Viravarman came into conflict with Nalapurapati Gopala, a Madhuvanakadhiap and king Hariraja of Gopagiri.

Viravarman’s records are found at Ajaygarh and nearby. That shows his possession in to important forts Ajaygarh and Kalinjar. One of his stone inscriptions has been found at Jhansi and other at Gurha.  His two cooper plates were discovered at Charkhari and Dahi, near Bijawar.

One of the Ajaygarh inscriptions mentions his chief queen, Kalayandevi, and gives a description of the families of both of her parents. She was born in Dadhichi vamsa and was the daughter of Maheshwar.

The Kalinjar inscription refers to his works of public utility and other pious benefactions. He is credited with the construction of various temples, gardens, ponds (tadaga) and tanks (vapi), and with the installation of the images of Shiva, Kamala and Kali.

Bhojavarman (c. 1285-1288 AD)

The next ruler was Bhojavarman, who was controlling Ajaygarh fort. Only three inscriptions of his reign have been discovered so far and all of them come from Ajaygarh fort. None of them throws any light on the achievements of Bhojavarman or on the history of his reign, but they provide very valuable information about certain families that had served the Chandelas with great devotion and distinction.

Hammiravarman (c. 1288-1311 AD)

Hammiravarman was ruler of Chandela dynasty about whom any information is available. There are three inscription of his reign, viz., his Charkhari copper plate (V.S. 1346), Bamhni sati record (v.s. 1365) and Ajaygarh sati stone inscription (v.s. 1368). They indicate that he had a long reign of 22 years. Through the records, it proves that he had control on Ajaygarh and Kalinjar fort. His rule was supplanted in a part of his dominions by that of the Khiljis. The growing Muslim influence in Bundelkhand in the 14^th century Ad and the rise of new powers like the Khangars and Bundelas in Bundelkhand and Baghelas in the Rewa area literally squeezed the Chandela out of existence. The later princes of the dynasty maintain their possession over Kalinjar and Ajaygarh till Kirata Rai, father of the famous princess Durgavati.

The Last Great Chandela

Madanvarman (c. 1128-1165 AD)

 Three successors of Kirtivarman have no spectacular achievements to boast of, but they maintained the integrity of their dominion. Madanvarman, the son and successor of Prthvivarman started a new phase of territorial aggrandisement at the cost of the neighbouring states.

The inscriptions found at Kalinjar, Ajaygarh, Mahoba and Khajuraho prove the possession of the four important towns, traditionally associated with the Chandelas. Other epigraphs of his reign have been found at Mau, Augasi and Papaura.

The Augasi plate proves The Mau inscription of his minister Gadadhara that refers to his wars with the contemporary rulers. It describes Madanvarman as one ‘ before whose name even, ever quickly flees the Chedi king, vanquished in fierce fight; (and) through dread of whom the king of Kashi always passes his time in friendly behaviour; by whom moreover that ruler of Malava, full of arrogance, was quickly exterminated, while other monarchs, paying homage to him, have enjoyed supreme comfort’. Madanvarman might have taken advantage of the difficulties of his southern neighbour and aggrandised himself at his expense.

 One of the Kalinjar epigraphs records that Madanvarman ‘in an instant defeated the king of Gurjara, as Krishna in former times defeated Kamsa’.

The bharat Kala Bhawan plates of Madanvarman mention the names of his three queens, viz., Valhanadevi, Lakhamadevi and Chandaldevi. The Kalinjar record mentions the name of his younger brother Pratapvarman. Other records mention some of his civil and military officials.

A number of towns and tanks in different parts of Bundelkhand perpetuate Madanvarman memory to the present day. These include Madanpura in Jhansi district, Madankhera near Mahoba and Madanesasagarapura now marked by the ruins of a temple in Ahara (Tikamgarh), Madanasagara about 5 kms.  Mahoba and two other equally large tanks of the same name in Jatara and Ahra-Narayanpura in Tikamgarh.

A  Great Patron of Art

Parmardideva (c. 1165-1203 AD)

Parmardideva, popularly known as Parmal, is the most widely known of all the Chandela kings. His fame, however, rests not so much on his achievements as on his association with the two popular heroes, Alaha and Udala.

He came to throne in his infancy, at the five, is evidenced by Parmal Raso. The same fact is also hinted at in an Ajaygarh inscription.

Parmardideva, who lived at a most critical period in our history, was blessed with along reign of more than thirty-five years. 

Semara plates, Baghari inscription, Ajaygarh and Kalinjar inscriptions refer to his conquests. A fragmentary inscription from Mahoba of v.s. 1204 (AD 1183) that specially refers to his victory over the contemporary Chedi king. It also alludes to Paramardideva’s digvijaya campaigns in Anga, Banga and Kalinga.

The early years of his reign appear to have been peaceful, but in the eighties of the twelth century he had to encounter a most formidable rival in Prthiviraja III Chahamana, who was aspiring for supremacy in Northern India.

The traditional account of the war between Paramardideva and Prthiviraja is preserved in the Parmal Raso. All accounts agree that the battle for Mahoba was fiercely contested resulting in many causalities and severe loss to both sides. After the heroic resistance offered by the Chandelas Mahoba fell to Prthiviraja. It was sacked and occupied. Kalinjar, too, did not escape.

Twenty years later, Paramardideva had encountered a more formidable foe. Paramardideva’s turn came in AD 1203. Kutub-ud-deen proceeded at the Kalinjar. The Taj-ul-Masir, which gives a detailed account of his operations in Jejakabhukti, states that ‘in the year 599 A.H., Kutub-ud-deen proceeded to the investment of Kalinjar…. The accursed Paramar, the Rai of Kalinjar, fled into the fort after a desperate resistance in the field, and afterwards surrendered himself, and ‘placed the collar of subjection’ round his neck and on his promise of allegiance, was admitted do the same favours as his ancestor had experienced from Mahmud Subuktigin, and engaged to make a payment of tribute and elephants, but he died a natural death before he could execute any his engagement.

The largest number of the copper plates charters issued by the Chandela kings, and they furnish the best proof of his liberality.

Renewal of Ancestral Kingdom

Kirtivarman (c. 1060-1100 AD)

According to dynastic records Kirtivarman was a son of Vijayapala and he was succeeded after the death of Devavarman.

His greatest achievement was the resurrection of his ancestral kingdom, which had been overwhelmed by the forces of the southern rival, the king of Dahlia. There are many records detailed the victory of Kirtivarman on Chedi king Lakshmikaran or Karna.

The Mahoba inscription also refers to the details. It states that, ‘ just as Purusottama (Vishnu) having produced the nectar by churning with mountain (Mandara) the rolling ocean, whose high waves had swallowed many mountains, obtained Lakshmi, together with elephants, he(Kirtivarman) having acquired fame by crushing with his strong arm the haughty Lakshmi Karna, whose armies had destroyed many princes, obtained splendour in this world together with elephants’.

Kirtivarman also appears to have encountered successfully the force of Mahmud, governor of Punjab, during the reign of Sultan Ibrahim of Ghazni (1059-1099 AD).

Kirtivarman constructed three important lakes, viz., Kirat Sagar in Mahoba, another lake of the same name in Chanderi and Budhiya Tal in Kalanjara. Also he constructed a new fort on the bank of river Betwa is called Kirtigir-durga.

Ajaygarh fort and Kalanjar fort has many temples, some of them were constructed or restored by king Kirtivarman.

Revival of Power

Sallaksanavarman (c. 1100-1110 AD)

Kirtivarman had restored the fallen fortune of his family. His successor was his son Sallaksanavarman.

The 38^th verse of the Mau epigraph refers the progress of Sallaksanavarman or his officer in the Ganga- Yamuna Doab. He maintained political and diplomatic relations with the Kalchuri of Ratanpur. He was not a mere soldier and conqueror. The Mau inscription alludes to his learning and knowledge of arts as well as his virtuous conduct and generosity.

Sallaksana-Vilaspura was the town where Paramardideva issued his Pachar, Mahoba, Charkhari and Ichchhawar plates. It shows that it was an important town in those days. It seems that it named after Sallaksanavarman.

Jayavarman (c. 1110-1120 AD)

According to Ajaygarh inscription, ‘the brave Jayavarmadeva ruled the kingdom after Sallaksanavarman’. Only one record of this ruler has been discovered so far, viz., the postscript of the Khajuraho inscription of Dhangadeva which he had reincised 114 years later.

Khajuraho inscription tells us that the king Jayavarmmadeva had ‘with the letters of his fame inscribe the walls of the regions, the mountain like great princes of which had been uprooted (by him and which had been) smoothed by the steps of (his) furious elephants (and) washed with the streams of tears of trembling wives of (his) enemies, perishing when they met (him) in battle’.

His region does not appear to have been glorious one; he abdicated the throne and proceeded to the divine river to wash away his sin.

Prthvivarman (c. 1120-1128 AD)

Jayavarman, who left no capable issue, was succeeded by his uncle Prthvivarman. Mau inscription of Madanvarman and Ajaygarh inscriptions of Kalayandevi and Ganapati tells that Prthvivarman ascended the throne after Jayavarman, the Augasi plate of Madanvarman sates that he was a successor of Kirtivarman. Mau inscription describes him as ‘the younger brother of the illustrious king Sallakshavarman’ – the father of Jayavarman.

None of the records however throws any light on the political incidents of his reign. While Kalayandevi inscription compares him to the mythical ruler Prthu.

The Augasi plate has given to Prthvivarman the usual titles viz., Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Parmeshvara.

Setback after Vidyadhara

Vijayapala (c. 1035-1050 AD)

After death of Vidyadhara, his son Vijayapala ruled here. The Nanyaura and Charkhari copper plates of his son Devavarman give the usual titles viz., Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Parmeshvara.  The Mau inscription refers his wide spread fame and virtuous conduct.

Vijayapala had at least two sons, viz., Devavarman who succeeded him to the throne and Kirtivarman who inherited the kingdom after the death of his elder brother. The Nanyaura copper-plate mentions Rajni Bhuvanadevi, mother of Devavarman.

Devavarman (c. 1050-1060 AD)

Devavarman, the son of Vijayapala, has not been mentioned in the later records of the family, but his existence is well established by Nanyaura (V.S. 1107) and Charkhari (V.S. 1108) copper-plates issued by him.

The Nanyaura plate stated that he surpassed Yudhisthira  by his truthfulness, Karna by his munificence, the Ocean by his depth, Indra by his majesty, Kama by his handsomeness, and both Shukra and Vachaspati by his intelligence.

The Charkhari plate gives him the epithet of ‘mahasamanta rajaputra-vandita-padah’ (whose feet were worshipped by the great feudatory princes).

The Zenith of Power

Dhangadeva (c. 950-1002)

                                                                                       

King Dhangadeva (c. AD 950-999), who was the son of Yashovarman born to his queen Puppa (Pushpa) Devi. He extended the kingdom and ruled over a vast tract stretching between the Yamuna and Narmada rivers. He was the first independent Chandela ruler who refused to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Pratiharas. He was a worshipper of Lord Shiva and installed two lingams, one made of emerald and the other of stone, in the temple then called Markateshvara.

According to verses 45 and 46 of Khajuraho inscription of V.S. 1059, the rulers of Kosala, Kratha, Simhala and Kuntala presented themselves in his hall of audience, and listened humbly to the commands of his chamberlains. It further adds that he was ‘so successful in his wars that the wives of the kings of Kanchi, Andhra, Radha and Anga lingered in his prisons’.

The Mau inscription of the tome of Madanvarman refers to another important achievement of Dhanga. It tells the Chandela ruler ‘having defeated on battle-field the King of Kanyakubja all princes, obtained exalted sovereignty’.

The fragmentary Mahoba stone inscription refers to another achievement of king Dhanga. Introducing Muslim invaders for the first time in the epigraphic records of the dynasty, it tells us that Dhanga ‘by strength of his arms, equalled even the powerful Hamvira (Amir was tilted adopted by the sultan of Ghazni), who had proved a heavy burden for the earth.’

Dhanga, who was blessed with a long span of life, must had a large family, but very little is known of it. The records preserve only the names of his son Ganda, who succeeded him to the throne, and of his younger brother Krsna or Krsnapa. The latter was the governor of the south-western provinces of the kingdom, extending at least from Dudhai in the north to Bhilsa (Vidisha) in the south. He is mentioned in four epigraphs discovered at Dudhai in Lalitpur (U.P.). They describe him as the son of Maharajadhiraja Yashovarman of Chandela anvaya.

Dhanga was highly praised in the records for his good conduct, devotion of law, spirit of sacrifice, discernment, intelligence and love for fine arts.

He was great donor and religious person; he donated money, grain, cows, and land to the Brahmans in the period of solar or lunar eclipses.

The poets Madhava and Rama, who respectively composed the two Khajuraho prasastis (inscriptions), belonged to his court. Madhava was son of the grammarian Dedda and Rama was the son of Balabhadra, who was well-versed in scriptures and grandson of kavichkravati Nandana. He was a scion of Savara (Sabara) family resident at Tarkkarika (Tikuri).

This remarkable ruler was blessed with an unusually span of life. He lives for more than a century, and religious bent of his mind is evidenced by the fact that he thought it fit to end his earthly life at the holy confluence of the Ganga and the Jamuna.

Thus he passed away from this world and gave a solid foundation for this dynasty.

Ganda Deva (c. 1002-1015 AD)

Ganda occupied the throne after the death of his illustrious father. There is not a single inscription of this ruler so far, but his name and achievements figure in the following records of his successors:

1. Mahoba fragmentary stone inscription, 2. Mau stone inscription of Madanvarman reign, 3. Ajaygarh rock inscription of the time of Kirtivarman, and 4. Ajaygarh rock inscription of the reign of Bhojavarman.

The records extol Ganda for his victories and deeds of valour, without giving any concrete instance. These records tell us so little about the king himself, are more informative about some of his ministers.

Vidyadhara (c. 1015-1036 AD)

Vidyadhara, the son and successor of Ganda was one of the most remarkable rulers of his age. But not a single inscription of his reign has been found so far.

The Mau inscription compares him to the divine ruler Vasava (Indra), the Devgarh epigraph details that his ‘ lotus-feet were bowed down to by crowds of princes’. The Mahoba inscription shows his relation with contemporary rulers. It refers that, ‘Bhojdeva, together with Kalchuri-chandra, worshiped, full of fear, like a pupil, (this) master of warfare, who had caused the destruction of the king of Kanyakubja’.

Vidyadhara was first ruler, who had a great battle with Mahmud of Ghazni and restored the power. He was describes as a greatest ruler of India in the Muslim chronicles.

After the great victory on Muslim, he constructed a grand temple of Khajuraho, known as Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.

History of Chandelas, Part 1: Genealogy

Genealogy

The genealogy of the Chandela kings can be determined fairly accurately with the help of their epigraphic records. About 65 stone inscriptions and many copper plates are found in different sites of Chandelas. These inscriptions and copper plates are found in Khajuraho, Kalinjar, Ajaygarh and Mahoba etc.

Genealogy of the Chandela Royal Family

Chandratreya Muni

↓

Nannuka (831-845)

↓

Vakapati (845-865)

↓

Jayashakyi and Vijayashakti (865-885)

                                    ↓

                        Rahila (885-905)

                                    ↓

Harsha (905-925) + Kanchuka

↓

Yashovarman or Lakshavarma (925-950) + Pushpa

↓

Dhanga                                               and                              Krishnapa + Asarva = Devalabdhi

↓

Ganda (999-1003)

↓

Vidyadhara (1003-1035) + Satyabhama

↓

Vijayapala (1035-1050) + Bhuvanadevi

Devavarman (1050-1060)                 and                  Kirtivarman (1060-1100)

                                                                                                ↓

                                                                                    Sallakshavarman (1100-1110)

Jayavarman (1110-1120)                                          ↓

                                                                                    Prithivivarman

                                                                                                ↓

Madanavarman (1128-1165)            = Valhanadevi                                                           Pratap

↓                                                          = Lakhamadevi

                                                            = Chandaladevi

Yashovarman II

↓

Paramardideva (1165-1203)

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Trailokyavarman (1203-1245)

↓

Viravarman (1245-1285) = Kalyanadevi

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Bhojavarman (1285-1288)

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Hammiravarman (1288-1308)

Primary Chandela Rulers

Nannuka (c. 831-845 A.D.) unfortunately there is very less information about the history of Nannuka’s reign who is mentioned only in two inscription dated in v.s. 1011(A.D. 954) and v.s. 1059 (A.D. 1002). The first epigraph refers unclear to his victorious career, handsome personality, widespread fame and sovereign authority. He was ‘a touch stone to test the worth of the gold of the regal order’ (kshatra-suvarna-sara-nikasa-grava), and ‘playfully decorated the faces of the women of the quarters with the sandal of his fame’. His enemies without exception bowed down at the progress of his unprecedented valour’ while other princes, confounded through fear, carried (his) command on their head’, like Sheshnag. ‘Shaped like the god of love’, this ruler had conquered many hosts of enemies (bahu-vairi-varga-jayinah), and his fame is sung by ‘delighted panegyrists spread far and wide causing despair to his antagonists.

Vakpati (c. 845-865 A.D.)

The two inscriptions mention above are again the only source that disclose the name of Vakpati, the son and successor of Nannuka. One of them refers to his ‘spotless fame’ (amalakirti) which pervaded three worlds, while other praises him for learning (vidya-avadata-hrdaya), unstained valour, modesty and knowledge of polity. He defeated his enemies, caused pleasure to his subjects, removed their apprehensions, and thus reduced to insignificance the glory of the mythical kings Prthu and Kakustha by his accomplishments. Both the epigraphs compare him to Vakpati (Brhaspati), noted for his wisdom and learning among the gods.

There is a significant statement in the record of A.D. 954, viz., that Vakpati’s ‘pleasure-mound was that Vindhya, the peaks of which are charming with the sweet notes of his Excellencies sung by Kirata women…..’ This reference connects him with the Vindhyan region, over a part of which his father appears to have established his sway.

Jayashakti and Vijayashakti (c. 865-885 A.D.)

Vakpati had two sons, Jayashakti and Vijayshakti. The two brothers, referred to in a large number of dynastic records, are generally mentioned together. In Mahoba inscription, the territory was controlled by Chandelas to be known as Jejakabhukti after the name of Jeja or Jayashakti.

The elder brother, Jayashakti, ascended the throne after the death of his father. He appears to have died without leaving any son, and was succeeded by his younger brother Vijayshakti.

Khajuraho stone inscription of A.D. 954 tells us that ‘ princes, when they are met together, enraptured, praise with shaking of heads the deeds of both of them by the unmeasured prowess of whom adversaries were destroyed, as wood are burnt a blazing fire.

Rahila (c. 885-905 A.D.)

Vijayashakti’s successor was his son Rahila. The record of 954 A.D. describes him as mighty warrior, ‘thinking of whom the enemies enjoy little sleep at night. Further describing his warfare in the symbolism of a sacrifice, it tells us that Rahila ‘ never tired, at the sacrifice of battle, where the terribly wielded sword was the ladle, where the oblation of clarified butter was made with streaming blood, where the twanging of bow string was exclamation vasat (and) at which exasperated warriors marching in order were the priests, successful with his counsel sacrificed, like beasts, the adversaries in the fire of enmity made to blaze up, high by the wind of his unappeased anger’.

Evolution of Chandela Power

Sri Harsha (c. 905-925 A.D.)

Rahila was succeeded by his more famous son, Harsha, who is mentioned in several inscriptions of his successors. A newly-emerging prince of the dynasty, Harsha (c. AD 905-925), sixth in the line, successfully fought the Rastrakuta king, who was the foe of his overlord, and reinstated the Pratihara ruler Kshitipaladeva on the throne of Kanauj in AD 917. This victorious event has been recorded in a stone inscription found near the Vamana temple at Khajuraho. Harsha’s marriage with the Rajput princess Kanchuka of the Chahamana family indicates the rise in the social status.

Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Parmeshvara Kalanjaraadhipati

Yashovarman also known as Lakshavarman, the son of Harsha, and his Chawahan queen Kanchuka. The most elaborated details of Yashovarman are in Khajuraho inscription of v.s. 1011 in the following verses ‘ …… that frontal ornament of princely families the illustrious king Yashovarman….. was a sword to (cut down) the Gaudas as if they were pleasure-creepers, equalled the forces of the Khasas, (and) carried off the treasure of the Kosalas; before whom perished the Kashmiri warriors, who weakened the Mithilas (and) was as it were a god of death of the Malavas; who brought distress on the shameful Chedis, who was to the Kurus what a storm is to trees, (and) a scorching fire to the Gurjaras’. (v. 23)

‘Free from fear, he impetuously defeated in battle the Chedi king whose forces were countless, who had put down his lotus-foot on rows of diadems of famous princes….’ (v. 28)

‘At the conquest of the regions, his soldiers gradually managed to ascend the slopes of the snowy mountain....’ (v. 30)

‘He easily conquered Kalanjara Mountain, the dwelling-place of Shiva, which is so high that it impedes the progress of sun at mid-day’. (v. 31)

‘ The illustrious Lakshavarman in his conquests of the regions made, equal to Indra, the daughter of Kalinda (Yamuna), and the offspring of Jahnu (Ganga), one after another, his pleasure-lakes, encamping the forces of his army on either bank unmolested by any adversaries, (and rendering) their waters muddy by the bathing of his furious mighty elephants’ (v. 39).

He certainly seems to have created a lasting impression on the popular mind, poetically described by court poet Madhava as follows: ‘In the halls of princes, where sages dwell, (and) where good people meet, in the village, in the assemblages of streets cross, where wanderers talk together on the road, (and) constantly from astonishment is loud only in praise of his excellencies’. The inscription also gives us a graphic though exaggerated, account of his vast armies, fiercely contested battles and personal valour.

The epigraphs extol him for his munificence, devotion to the Brahmans, truthfulness and handsome personality. One record tells that he outdid Sivi in charity by giving away crores and crores’ of rupees in gift to the supplicants, another would have us believe that he surpassed Karna in munificence, Yudhisthira in truthfulness, and Arjuna in valour.

He acquired the prestigious Vaikuntha-Vishnu image from his Pratihara overlord Devapala, and announced his victory by building a splendid temple, the first in the Nagara style at Khajuraho. The inscription on the Lakshaman temple declares Yashovarman conquest of the strategic fort of Kalinjar. It was from his time that the Chandela king began calling himself Kalanjaraadhipati or Lord of Kalanjar.

‘ From Kailash, and from him Sahi, the king of Kira(Kara raja), received it as a token of friendship; from him afterwards Herambapala obtained it fro a force of elephants and horses, and received it from Devapala, the lord of horses(Hayapati), the son of Herambapala, either as a gift or as a trophy of victory.

The same record also contains a description of the temple - ‘the charming splendid home of the  enemy of the daityas, which rivals the peaks of the mountain of snow; the golden pinnacles of which illumine the sky, (and) on which groups of lotuses are wafted to and fro by multitudes of banners on high poles…..’.

The Khajuraho inscription of v.s. 1059 also, referring to the shame shrine, states that Yashovarman ‘erected this dwelling….. of Vaikuntha…… from which the charioteer of the sun, to save the wheels, turns away his chariot, because with its sharp spires shining like the autumnal moon, it pierces the zodiac; and the golden dome of which always cause it to be taken for the sun, kissing with its orb the peaks of the mountain of snow.’

The same inscription mentions his queen Puppa (Puspa?) Devi, born in an illustrious family, and compare her to such celebrities as Anasuya, Arundhati, Damayanti, Madalasa and Sachi. She was the mother of his illustrious son and successor Dhangadeva. Dudhai inscriptions reveal the existence of another son his name was Krishnapa.

The art and architecture of Lakshaman temple is enough to prove the personality of King Yashovarman. It’s a symbol of power, prosperity and lover of art and great religious leader.